Managers struggling to identify and solve performance problems often conclude that employee motivation (or lack thereof) is the cause of such problems. Many people have strong ideas about motivation based on intuition and personal experience. Attempts to “fix” performance problems by influencing motivation are often based on these intuitive assumptions. Frequently these interventions fail.
It is important to note at the outset of this discussion that motivation is not the same as performance. Motivation is one influence on performance. Gilbert’s Behavior Engineering Model describes six influences on worthy performance as illustrated below:
Information |
Instrumentation |
Motivation |
|
|---|---|---|---|
Environmental Support |
Data |
Instruments |
Incentives |
Person’s Repertory of Behavior |
Knowledge |
Capacity |
Motives |
(Source: Van Tiem, Moseley, & Dessinger, 2000, p. 8)
Work motivation could be defined as the internal and external influences on the quality and quantity of an individual’s work, the amount of effort put forth, and the commitment to reach goals or produce outcomes. Some see motivation as strictly intrinsic. Values, needs, emotions and perceptions of equity, for example, must be fulfilled in the process of work in order for an individual to be motivated to accomplish something. Others see motivation as strictly an external set of reinforcements or punishments that change behavior. It seems that some of the most valuable applications of motivational research involve a combination of both types of theories.
Regardless of the perspective of a theory of work motivation, all are concerned with predicting or explaining the behaviors that lead to performance. Motivation is not the same as performance. Performance is achieving goals, meeting expectations, or producing desired work outcomes. Motivation is the combination of forces that may lead to performance.
Theories of motivation are developed and refined by social scientists through a series of observations and tests. The basic system of study generally follows these steps:
The final step of evaluation determines the falsifiability, utility, and validity of the theories. Falsifiability exists if the research can be repeated and the results do not support the theory in whole or in part (Pinder, 1998). Tests of validity seek to answer the questions:
Finally, a theory passes the tests of utility if it can consistently predict and explain why something happens. Ideally, a theory should pass all three of these tests. This can be very difficult, especially when dealing with the many complex, unobservable variables at work in human behavior and motivation,such as needs, values, and emotions. For example, it is difficult to tell if an individual’s emotions are impacting their self-efficacy beliefs or their perception of environmental supports, but yet many theories do not address these relationships well, nor do they have the tools to adequately differentiate between the variables. As a result, there are no perfect theories of motivation, though some are more valuable and applicable than others.
Another consideration of value is the relevance of a theory. According to K. W. Thomas and Tymon (cited in Pinder, 1998), a relevant theory of work motivation is one that:
Even if motivation theory is flawed, it can still be practically applied to work settings. Theories should not be applied to predict behavior or prescribe interventions. However, if they are at least somewhat valid and relevant, they can be used to describe, explain, and raise awareness of motivation factors and to make suggestions for solutions to motivational problems.
Another important consideration to be made when applying any motivation theory is its applicability to groups or to individuals. The methodological flaws in motivational research make who the theory is applied to very important. At best, most theories generalize about tendencies of groups of people. Some theories, VIE for example, do very well at explaining individual motivation. The same theory has less validity, however, when applied between different people (Pinder, 1998). Lack of external validity (the theory does not necessarily hold true when applied across different populations) make them only somewhat practical to apply to different groups of people. Overall, the best application of motivational theory should be to help understand the many variables (internal and external) at work within individuals. It is important to remember that everyone is different, therefore not every individual will respond to the same motivational factors in the same way.
Finally, Pinder cites R. Jacques’ proposition of applying an “ethic of caring” (1998, p. 31) to the evaluation of any theory. Such an evaluation would be used to determine if application of the theory would give more social power and control to those who already hold that authority or if it would help to empower the weaker, more disadvantaged members of society (Pinder, 1998).
Generally, theories of work motivation relate to people meeting needs, performing desired behaviors, and/or achieving goals. Richard Clark (1999) attempted to integrate concepts from different theories to form the Commitment and Necessary Effort (CaNE) model of work motivation. This model is concerned primarily with people’s commitment to a goal and the mental effort they put forth to achieve that goal and can be used to begin the process of identifying and solving work motivational problems.
In the CaNE model, goal commitment is essentially determined by the answers an individual might give to the following questions:
Value: What is the value of achieving the goal?
Emotions: How do I feel about this goal?
Personal Agency: Am I able to achieve this goal?
If any of the three main areas of value, emotions, and personal agency are lacking, the individual will not be adequately committed to achieving the goal (Clark, 1999).
The second phase of Clark’s (1999) model involves the concept of mental effort and considers an individual’s beliefs about his/her abilities to reach the goal (self-efficacy) and his/her familiarity with the work associated with the goal (novelty). The amount of mental effort that might be put forth would decrease, thus decreasing overall motivation, if the person did not think they have what it takes or if they find the goal to be unfamiliar or threatening. On the other hand, the individual would tend to be more motivated to reach a goal if they had strong self-efficacy beliefs and found the goal to be at least somewhat familiar to them.
While Clark’s CaNE Model represents a synthesis of many leading theories in human motivation, there may be additional factors not considered here that influence motivation in an individual. The concepts of equity and goal selection, among others, may be important considerations that are explored in other models and theories of work motivation.
The purpose of this Motivation Toolkit is to help managers work with employees to explore motivational issues and their impact on performance. It is intended as a guide to better understand the various influences on motivation and how to make changes that may improve motivational aspects of performance. It is not intended to solve all performance problems. Other influences on performance may require further examination.
Open Motivation Toolkit (pdf file)
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Herman Miller, Inc.
Manufacturer of “modern” office furniture, specifically the Aeron chair, Herman Miller executives recognize a moral dimension to the design of furniture and business. They have embraced a culture of employee participation since the 1950s, offering employees stock ownership, discounted stock purchase, and profit-sharing plans. Employees currently own 15% of the company’s market capital. Employee ownership is not limited to shares in the company.
“Once a month, a cross-functional, cross-level group of employees, chaired by the VP for People and the VP for Finance, meet to review the company's performance in achieving its stated goals and reports problems and successes to the Executive Committee. Results of these meetings are then reported on a monthly basis to employee-owners company-wide via videotape. The report includes a status update on prospects for the company's quarterly bonus payment. After the video conference, all officers and directors meet via conference call. During the following week, every employee owner has the right and the responsibility to meet with at least one director to discuss the contents of the video” (Goodman & Staubus, n.d., ¶ 11).
“… the culture of employee ownership and superior design and production has remained alive and well. In the company's great tradition, the people of Herman Miller remain concerned not only with financial prosperity, but with larger issues of humanity and equality and bettering the world they work in” (Goodman & Staubus, n.d., ¶ 5).
Pool Covers, Inc.
Executives at this company encourage employee loyalty and participation through financial ownership, participatory management, professional development and recognition. Since the company’s start in 1984 in founders Bill and Bonnie Pickens’ garage, they have demonstrated an intense interest in what their employees were learning on the job. Ten years later, PCI adopted a formal plan for open communications and open book management (Wlakush, n.d.; Leiber, 2004). Since that time, the company has initiated a CEO program, short for Certified Employee Owner, that teaches employees about company financials and encourages participation in an employee stock option plan. Employees complete two courses, take accompanying certification exams, and submit an idea for improving profits in order to earn the title of “CEO”. Following completion of the course, “CEOs” are treated to special recognition rewards and a celebration. The developers of the stock option plan, all non-management employees, hope to achieve 100% employee ownership in the future (Walkush, n.d.).
One of the values espoused by the ”real” CEO is “have fun,” but employees are also held to a high standard of performance. Employees are expected to “pull their weight” by contributing to the team and developing an “ownership mentality” or leave the company. Demonstrating another important cultural value, when asked what he likes best about his job, CEO Bill Pickens states: "Developing people to achieve their maximum potential. Claire King, the president of the company came to us 12 or 13 years ago as a part-time file clerk” (Leiber, 2004, p. 2).
Richard Clark
Selected Publications:
John M. Keller
Selected publications:
Beyster Institute
http://www.beysterinstitute.org/index.cfm
Part of the Rady School of Management at the University of California, San Diego, this non-profit organization specializes in employee ownership, equity compensation and entrepreneurship to build stronger, higher performing enterprises. They offer informational resources, workshops, and consulting services to business leaders who share their vision of “a society that encourages, supports and values entrepreneurship and employee ownership as the most fair and effective approaches to enterprise development and to building high performing organizations, ensuring economic vitality and enhancing community well-being.” They also publish Leading Companies, an online magazine offering news and trends related to innovative employee ownership programs.
Given the complex nature of work motivation, when searching for additional resources pertaining to work motivation it is important to exercise appropriate disrespect toward those that offer motivational solutions through “motivational speakers”, motivational trinkets and simple reward programs, and other “quick-fix” suggestions.
Here are a few resources that tend to consider the complexities of work motivation:
The Baldridge National Quality Program offers information, including questionnaires to help organizations evaluate and improve performance. While the focus of these questionnaires is not work motivation, many of the key motivational influences are included in the "Are We Making Progress?" documents. These can be accessed on the internet at http://www.quality.nist.gov/Progress.htm
The Institute of Certified Professional Managers provides a website and monthly e-newsletter, Management World, intended to have an on-going impact on management education. Its mission is topublish information that improves management capabilities, highlights current business trends and increases organizational productivity. Access current articles and the archives including the following titles:
An overview of Keller's ARCS (Attention, Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction) Theory of Motivation at http://ide.ed.psu.edu/idde/ARCS.htm
View a visual of the model that Harold Stolovitch, Richard Clark and Steven Condly created from Clark's CANE model of motivation.
Clark, R. E. (1999). The CaNE model of motivation to learn and work: A two-stage process of goal commitment and effort. Lowyck, J. (Ed.) Trends in Corporate Training. Leuven, Belgium: University of Belgium Press.
Goodman, J. & Staubus, H. (n.d.) The culture of employee ownership at Herman Miller. Retrieved December 4, 2004 from http://www.beysterinstitute.org/other_resources/case_studies.cfm
Leiber, K. (2004, September 27). Company partners with its employees [Electronic version]. Easy Bay Business Times. Retrieved December 4, 2004 from http://eastbay.bizjournals.com/eastbay/stories/2004/09/27/smallb2.html?page=1
Pinder, C. C. (1998). Work motivation in organizational behavior. Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Van Tiem, D. M., Moseley, J. L., & Dessinger, J. C. (2000). Fundamentals of performance technology: A guide to improving people, processes, and performance. Washington, DC: International Society for Performance Improvement.
Walkush, P. (n.d.). Everyone's a CEO at Pool Covers, Inc. Retrieved December 4, 2004 from http://www.beysterinstitute.org/other_resources/case_studies.cfm